浅析古埃及法的形成和演变
王海宏
地处非洲东北部的埃及是人类文明的发源地之一，流贯南北的尼罗河每年定期泛滥，不仅灌溉了万顷农田，而且在洪水退后，留下一层肥沃的淤泥，有利于农作物的生长。尼罗河滋润着两岸的土地，哺育着这里居民。古希腊学者希罗多德称埃及是尼罗河的赠礼。古埃及人在这里创造了高度的文明，大约在公元前5000年，埃及人已经进入定居的农业生活，成为世界上最早的农业地区之一。
在公元前4000年后半期，由于农业、手工业、畜牧业和渔业都有了很大的发展，埃及的原始公社开始解体，农村公社逐渐取代了以血缘为纽带的氏族公社，贫富分化日益明显。公元前3500年左右，埃及逐渐出现了奴隶制国家的雏形：“州”，州最初是由一些农村公社为了水利灌溉的需要结合而成的，每个州有自己的图腾，拥有州神，旗帜，甚至军队，全埃及共有大约四十二个州。州与州之间长期战争和兼并的结果，形成了上、下埃及两个王国。公元前3100年左右，上埃及王美尼斯统一全国，定都提尼斯，后又迁都至阵斐斯，统一的埃及步入奴隶制文明时代，从这时起到公元前332年埃及被马其顿王亚山大征服止，经历了早王国、古王国、中王国、新王国和后期埃及几个时期，共计31个王朝。自公元前11世纪起，动荡的埃及先后被埃塞俄比亚人、亚述人、波斯人和马其顿的亚历山大所征服，公元前6世纪以后，埃及基本上沦为波斯、希腊和罗马的行省，从此古埃及法彻底推动其独立地位。
埃及法最古老的渊源是奴隶制国家形成初期的不成文的习惯法，它是由氏族 习惯演变而来的。随着埃及统一国家的形成，习惯法逐渐转变为成文法，根据古典作家锹奥多拉斯的记载，塞索西斯和博克贺利斯等国王。据说，萨吉西曾分布布一道法令：借债时可自己亡父的木乃伊作为抵押，或以自身未来的木乃伊作为偿还债务的担保，债务清偿以前，本人的木乃分不得埋葬。公元前13世纪，拉美西斯二世为了以法律形式确认奴隶缺编治秩序，分布了关于整顿军队的成分和按阶级出身、职业及特权作为区别的“种姓制法律”。公元前8世纪，则有《博克贺利斯法典》的公布，全书共8部。除了法老分布的法律之外，宰相和其他高级行政官员发布的下令起着补充法律之不足的作用，因而有法律的效力。史料表明，古埃及法的发展同样经历了的上习惯法向成文法转化，并不断完善的过程，但成文法的出现并不意味着习惯法完全消失，习惯法在不断被成文化的同时，仍在广泛的领域发挥重要作用。
古埃及的成文法可惜都未能完整地保存下来，根据考古发现的文献资料以及古典作家的片断转述，其概貌依稀可辩。从已被发现的铭文和纸草中可以地辨认出诸如法老的敕令、判决记录、契约、遗嘱、继承、账目和证明等法律文献，内容涉及到公法和私法，实体法和程序法，表明古埃及的奴隶制法律文明已达到相当完备的程度，而且从希腊夺下 典自然法学派的学说以及柏拉图、亚里士多德的著作中。
北安市人民法院 王海宏
中华人民共和国民用航空安全保卫条例(附英文)
国务院
中华人民共和国民用航空安全保卫条例(附英文)
（1996年7月6日中华人民共和国国务院令第201号发布）
第一章 总 则
第一条 为了防止对民用航空活动的非法干扰，维护民用航空秩序，保障民用航空安全，制定本条例。
第二条 本条例适用于在中华人民共和国领域内的一切民用航空活动以及与民用航空活动有关的单位和个人。
在中华人民共和国领域外从事民用航空活动的具有中华人民共和国国籍的民用航空器适用本条例；但是，中华人民共和国缔结或者参加的国际条约另有规定的除外。
第三条 民用航空安全保卫工作实行统一管理、分工负责的原则。
民用航空公安机关(以下简称民航公安机关)负责对民用航空安全保卫工作实施统一管理、检查和监督。
第四条 有关地方人民政府与民用航空单位应当密切配合，共同维护民用航空安全。
第五条 旅客、货物托运人和收货人以及其他进入机场的人员，应当遵守民用航空安全管理的法律、法规和规章。
第六条 民用机场经营人和民用航空器经营人应当履行下列职责：
(一)制定本单位民用航空安全保卫方案，并报国务院民用航空主管部门备案；
(二)严格实行有关民用航空安全保卫的措施；
(三)定期进行民用航空安全保卫训练，及时消除危及民用航空安全的隐患。
与中华人民共和国通航的外国民用航空企业，应当向国务院民用航空主管部门报送民用航空安全保卫方案。
第七条 公民有权向民航公安机关举报预谋劫持、破坏民用航空器或者其他危害民用航空安全的行为。
第八条 对维护民用航空安全做出突出贡献的单位或者个人，由有关人民政府或者国务院民用航空主管部门给予奖励。
第二章 民用机场的安全保卫
第九条 民用机场(包括军民合用机场中的民用部分，下同)的新建、改建或者扩建，应当符合国务院民用航空主管部门关于民用机场安全保卫设施建设的规定。
第十条 民用机场开放使用，应当具备下列安全保卫条件：
(一)设有机场控制区并配备专职警卫人员；
(二)设有符合标准的防护围栏和巡逻通道；
(三)设有安全保卫机构并配备相应的人员和装备；
(四)设有安全检查机构并配备与机场运输量相适应的人员和检查设备；
(五)设有专职消防组织并按照机场消防等级配备人员和设备；
(六)订有应急处置方案并配备必要的应急援救设备。
第十一条 机场控制区应当根据安全保卫的需要，划定为候机隔离区、行李分检装卸区、航空器活动区和维修区、货物存放区等，并分别设置安全防护设施和明显标志。
第十二条 机场控制区应当有严密的安全保卫措施，实行封闭式分区管理。具体管理办法由国务院民用航空主管部门制定。
第十三条 人员与车辆进入机场控制区，必须佩带机场控制区通行证并接受警卫人员的检查。
机场控制区通行证，由民航公安机关按照国务院民用航空主管部门的有关规定制发和管理。
第十四条 在航空器活动区和维修区内的人员、车辆必须按照规定路线行进，车辆、设备必须在指定位置停放，一切人员、车辆必须避让航空器。
第十五条 停放在机场的民用航空器必须有专人警卫；各有关部门及其工作人员必须严格执行航空器警卫交接制度。
第十六条 机场内禁止下列行为：
(一)攀(钻)越、损毁机场防护围栏及其他安全防护设施；
(二)在机场控制区内狩猎、放牧、晾晒谷物、教练驾驶车辆；
(三)无机场控制区通行证进入机场控制区；
(四)随意穿越航空器跑道、滑行道；
(五)强行登、占航空器；
(六)谎报险情，制造混乱；
(七)扰乱机场秩序的其他行为。
第三章 民用航空营运的安全保卫
第十七条 承运人及其代理人出售客票，必须符合国务院民用航空主管部门的有关规定；对不符合规定的，不得售予客票。
第十八条 承运人办理承运手续时，必须核对乘机人和行李。
第十九条 旅客登机时，承运人必须核对旅客人数。
对已经办理登机手续而未登机的旅客的行李，不得装入或者留在航空器内。
旅客在航空器飞行中途中止旅行时，必须将其行李卸下。
第二十条 承运人对承运的行李、货物，在地面存储和运输期间，必须有专人监管。
第二十一条 配制、装载供应品的单位对装入航空器的供应品，必须保证其安全性。
第二十二条 航空器在飞行中的安全保卫工作由机长统一负责。
航空安全员在机长领导下，承担安全保卫的具体工作。
机长、航空安全员和机组其他成员，应当严格履行职责，保护民用航空器及其所载人员和财产的安全。
第二十三条 机长在执行职务时，可以行使下列权力：
(一)在航空器起飞前，发现有关方面对航空器未采取本条例规定的安全措施的，拒绝起飞；
(二)在航空器飞行中，对扰乱航空器内秩序，干扰机组人员正常工作而不听劝阻的人，采取必要的管束措施；
(三)在航空器飞行中，对劫持、破坏航空器或者其他危及安全的行为，采取必要的措施；
(四)在航空器飞行中遇到特殊情况时，对航空器的处置作最后决定。
第二十四条 禁止下列扰乱民用航空营运秩序的行为：
(一)倒卖购票证件、客票和航空运输企业的有效订座凭证；
(二)冒用他人身份证件购票、登机；
(三)利用客票交运或者捎带非旅客本人的行李物品；
(四)将未经安全检查或者采取其他安全措施的物品装入航空器。
第二十五条 航空器内禁止下列行为：
(一)在禁烟区吸烟；
(二)抢占座位、行李舱(架)；
(三)打架、酗酒、寻衅滋事；
(四)盗窃、故意损坏或者擅自移动救生物品和设备；
(五)危及飞行安全和扰乱航空器内秩序的其他行为。
第四章 安全检查
第二十六条 乘坐民用航空器的旅客和其他人员及其携带的行李物品，必须接受安全检查；但是，国务院规定免检的除外。
拒绝接受安全检查的，不准登机，损失自行承担。
第二十七条 安全检查人员应当查验旅客客票、身份证件和登机牌，使用仪器或者手工对旅客及其行李物品进行安全检查，必要时可以从严检查。
已经安全检查的旅客应当在候机隔离区等待登机。
第二十八条 进入候机隔离区的工作人员(包括机组人员)及其携带的物品，应当接受安全检查。
接送旅客的人员和其他人员不得进入候机隔离区。
第二十九条 外交邮袋免予安全检查。外交信使及其随身携带的其他物品应当接受安全检查；但是，中华人民共和国缔结或者参加的国际条约另有规定的除外。
第三十条 空运的货物必须经过安全检查或者对其采取的其他安全措施。
货物托运人不得伪报品名托运或者在货物中夹带危险物品。
第三十一条 航空邮件必须经过安全检查。发现可疑邮件时，安全检查部门应当会同邮政部门开包查验处理。
第三十二条 除国务院另有规定的外，乘坐民用航空器的，禁止随身携带或者交运下列物品：
(一)枪支、弹药、军械、警械；
(二)管制刀具；
(三)易燃、易爆、有毒、腐蚀性、放射性物品；
(四)国家规定的其他禁运物品。
第三十三条 除本条例第三十二条规定的物品外，其他可以用于危害航空安全的物品，旅客不得随身携带，但是可以作为行李交运或者按照国务院民用航空主管部门的有关规定由机组人员带到目的地后交还。
对含有易燃物质的生活用品实行限量携带。限量携带的物品及其数量，由国务院民用航空主管部门规定。
第五章 罚 则
第三十四条 违反本条例第十四条的规定或者有本条例第十六条、第二十四条第一项和第二项、第二十五条所列行为的，由民航公安机关依照《中华人民共和国治安管理处罚条例》有关规定予以处罚。
第三十五条 违反本条例的有关规定，由民航公安机关按照下列规定予以处罚：
(一)有本条例第二十四条第四项所列行为的，可以处以警告或者3000元以下的罚款；
(二)有本条例第二十四条第三项所列行为的，可以处以警告、没收非法所得或者5000元以下罚款；
(三)违反本条例第三十条第二款、第三十二条的规定，尚未构成犯罪的，可以处以5000元以下罚款、没收或者扣留非法携带的物品。
第三十六条 违反本条例的规定，有下列情形之一的，民用航空主管部门可以对有关单位处以警告、停业整顿或者5万元以下的罚款；民航公安机关可以对直接责任人员处以警告或者500元以下的罚款：
(一)违反本条例第十五条的规定，造成航空器失控的；
(二)违反本条例第十七条的规定，出售客票的；
(三)违反本条例第十八条的规定，承运人办理承运手续时，不核对乘机人和行李的；
(四)违反本条例第十九条的规定的；
(五)违反本条例第二十条、第二十一条、第三十条第一款、第三十一条的规定，对收运、装入航空器的物品不采取安全措施的。
第三十七条 违反本条例的有关规定，构成犯罪的，依法追究刑事责任。
第三十八条 违反本条例规定的，除依照本章的规定予以处罚外，给单位或者个人造成财产损失的，应当依法承担赔偿责任。
第六章 附 则
第三十九条 本条例下列用语的含义：
“机场控制区”，是指根据安全需要在机场内划定的进出受到限制的区域。
“候机隔离区”，是指根据安全需要在候机楼(室)内划定的供已经安全检查的出港旅客等待登机的区域及登机通道、摆渡车。
“航空器活动区”，是指机场内用于航空器起飞、着陆以及与此有关的地面活动区域，包括跑道、滑行道、联络道、客机坪。
第四十条 本条例自发布之日起施行。
REGULATIONS ON CIVIL AVIATION SECURITY OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
Whole document
Contents
Chapter I General Provisions
Chapter II Security Control in Civil Airport
Chapter III Security of Civil Aviation Operation
Chapter IV Security Inspection
Chapter V Penalty Provisions
Chapter VI Appendix
Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1
These Regulations are formulated for the purpose of safeguarding civil
aviation activities against acts of unlawful interference, maintaining the
order of civil aviation and ensuring the safety of civil aviation.
Article 2
These Regulations are applicable to all civil aviation activities and
to the units and individuals related to civil aviation activities in the
territory of the People's Republic of China.
These Regulations are applicable to civil aircraft possessing the
nationality of the People's Republic of China engaged in civil aviation
activities outside the territory of the People's Republic of China; unless
it is otherwise provided in international treaties concluded or
participated in by the People's Republic of China.
Article 3
Centralized management and division of responsibility shall be
exercised in the work of civil aviation security.
The civil aviation public security department shall be responsible for
the centralized management, inspection and supervision of the work of
civil aviation security.
Article 4
The local governments and civil aviation units concerned shall
co-operate closely and safeguard civil aviation safety commonly.
Article 5
Passengers, consignors, consignees and other persons entering an
airport shall comply with the laws and regulations stipulated for civil
aviation safety control.
Article 6
A civil airport operator and a civil aircraft operator shall fulfill
the following duties:
(1) Establish a civil aviation security programme of his own unit and
report to the competent civil aviation authorities under the State Council
for the record;
(2) Implement strictly the civil aviation security measures concerned;
(3) Carry out periodically civil aviation security training, and
remove in time hidden dangers to the safety of civil aviation.
A foreign civil aviation enterprise operating air services to the
People's Republic of China shall submit its civil aviation security
programme to the competent civil aviation authorities under the State
Council.
Article 7
A citizen has the right to report to the civil aviation public
security institute any premeditated seizure or destruction of civil
aviation aircraft or any other acts that endanger civil aviation safety.
Article 8
Reward shall be given by the people's government concerned or by the
competent civil aviation authorities under the State Council to a unit or
an individual making outstanding contributions to safeguarding civil
aviation safety.
Chapter II Security Control in Civil Airport
Article 9
The construction, modification or extension of civil airport
(including the civil part in those airports joint-used by military and
civil units) shall conform to the stipulations governing the construction
of civil airport security facilities of the competent civil aviation
authorities under the State Council.
Article 10
A civil airport shall be opened for use if it satisfies the security
conditions listed below:
(1) It has established an airport controlled area and is provided with
full-time security personnel;
(2) It has established protective fence and patrol passages up to
standard;
(3) It has established a security unit and is provided with
corresponding personnel and equipment;
(4) It has established a security facilities and is provided with the
personnel and check-up equipments corresponding to the traffic volume of
the airport;
(5) It has established a full-time fire-fighting organization and is
provided with personnel and equipment in accordance with the fire-fighting
grade of the airport;
(6) It has established a contingency plan and is provided with
necessary contingency rescue equipment.
Article 11
The airpot controlled zone shall be divided, in accordance with
security requirements, into departure sterile area, baggage sorting
loading and unloading area, aircraft movement area, maintenance area and
cargo storage area, etc. Security protection facilities and distinct signs
shall be set up respectively.
Article 12
Strict security measures shall be established for the airport
controlled area, and the area shall be of a closed type and controlled
separately. The specific method of control shall be formulated by the
competent civil aviation authorities under the State Council.
Article 13
All personnel and vehicles, while entering the airport controlled
area, must bear the airport controlled area pass and be subject to the
inspection of security personnel.
Airport controlled area pass shall be made, issued and controlled by
the civil aviation public security unit in accordance with the regulations
concerned of the competent civil aviation authorities under the State
Council.
Article 14
In the aircraft movement area and the maintenance area, personnel and
vehicles must follow the stipulated way. Vehicles and equipments must be
parked in designated positions. All personnel and vehicles must make way
for aircraft.
Article 15
The civil aircraft parked in an airport must be guarded by specially
assigned persons; the departments concerned and their working personnel
must strictly implement aircraft handing over and taking over procedure.
Article 16
The following acts are prohibited in an airport:
(1) Climbing up and over (penetrate) or damage airport protective
fence and other security protection facilities;
(2) Hunting, herding, sunning grain or train vehicle driver in airport
controlled zone;
(3) Entering airport controlled area without airport pass;
(4) Crossing aircraft runway or taxiway at will;
(5) Forcibly boarding or occupying an aircraft;
(6) Making a false report on dangerous situation and creating
confusion;
(7) Any other acts disturbing the order in airport.
Chapter III Security of Civil Aviation Operation
Article 17
The carrier and its agent, in selling passenger ticket, must comply
with the regulations concerned of the competent civil aviation authorities
under the State Council; no passenger ticket shall be sold if not
conforming to regulations.
Article 18
The carrier, in performing the formalities for transportation, must
check up passengers and baggage in the aircraft.
Article 19
The carrier must check the number of passengers when they board the
aircraft.
The baggage of the passengers already checked in but failed to board
the aircraft shall not be loaded or retained in the aircraft.
If a passenger gets off the aircraft midway, his baggage must be
unloaded.
Article 20
The carrier must assign special persons to supervise the baggage and
cargo during the storage period on ground and transportation period.
Article 21
The unit which prepares the supplies and loads them must ensure the
safety of such supplies loaded into the aircraft.
Article 22
The work of security of an aircraft in flight shall be the unified
responsibility of the pilot-in-command.
The aviation security officer shall undertake the concrete work of
security under the leadership of the pilot-in-command.
The pilot-in-command, aviation security officer and other crew members
shall strictly fulfill their duties and protect the safety of the civil
aircraft and of the persons and property carried therein.
Article 23
The pilot-in-command, in performing his duties, may exercise the
following powers:
(1) Before the aircraft takes off he may refuse to take off if he
discovers that the party concerned failed to take the security measures
prescribed in the Regulations for the aircraft;
(2) During the flight he may take necessary measures of restraint
against a person who disturbs the order in the aircraft, interferes with
the normal work of crew members and disregards any warning;
(3) During the flight he may take necessary measures against the
seizure or destruction of the aircraft or any other acts harmful to
aviation safety;
(4) During the flight he can make the final decision regarding the
disposal of the aircraft in case of extraordinary circumstances.
Article 24
The following acts interfering with the order of civil aviation
operation are prohibited:
(1) Scalp the certificate for purchasing ticket, passenger ticket and
the effective reservation certificate of air transport enterprise;
(2) Purchase ticket and go aboard an aircraft by using the identity
card of another person;
(3) Taking advantage of the passenger ticket to check or bring along
the baggage not belonging to the passenger himself.
(4) Load into the aircraft articles which have not gone through
security inspection or for which no other security measures have been
taken.
Article 25
The following acts are prohibited in an aircraft:
(1) Smoke in no smoking area;
(2) Race to occupy seat or baggage compartment (rack);
(3) Fight, get drunk, or pick a quarrel and make trouble;
(4) Steal, damage deliberately or move without authorization
lifesaving articles or appliances;
(5) Commit other acts endangering flight safety and disturbing the
order in aircraft.
Chapter IV Security Inspection
Article 26
Passengers and other persons aboard the aircraft, together with the
baggage they carry, must be subject to security inspection except those
exempted from inspection as prescribed by the State Council.
A person who refuses to go through security inspection shall be denied
boarding and bear the losses himself.
Article 27
The security inspection personnel shall examine the ticket, identity
card and boarding pass of the passenger and carry out the security
inspection of the passenger and his baggage with instrument or manually;
the inspection may be stricter if necessary.
The passengers already gone through security inspection shall wait in
the departure sterile area for boarding the aircraft.
Article 28
The working personnel (including crew members) and the articles
brought along by them shall be subject to security inspection while
entering the departure sterile area.
The persons meeting or seeing off the passengers as well as other
personnel must not enter the departure sterile area.
Article 29
Diplomatic mail bags are exempted from security inspection. Diplomatic
couriers and other articles brought along by them shall be subject to
security inspection, except those otherwise provided in international
treaties concluded or participated in by the People's Republic of China.
Article 30
The cargo for air transportation must go through security inspection
or other security measures.
The cargo consignor must not consign an article with a false name or
secretly include dangerous articles among the goods.
Article 31
Air mail must go through security inspection. In case a suspicious
mail is discovered, the security inspection department and the postal
department shall jointly open it for examination and handling.
Article 32
Unless otherwise provided by the State Council, the persons flying in
a civil aircraft are prohibited from carrying with them or consign for
transportation the following articles:
(1) Firearms, ammunition, weapons, police arms;
(2) Controlled knives;
(3) Inflammables, explosives, poisonous, erosive and radioactive
articles;
(4) Other contraband stipulated by the State.
Article 33
Other articles which could be used to jeopardize flight safety, though
not included in Article 32, still must not be taken by the passenger
himself. However they can be consigned as baggage or can be carried, in
accordance with the regulations stipulated by the civil aviation
authorities of the State Council, by crew members and be taken back at the
destination.
Articles for daily use containing inflammable substance may be carried
in limited quantity. The articles to be carried in limited quantity and
the quantity to be carried shall be specified by the competent civil
aviation authorities of the State Council.
Chapter V Penalty Provisions
Article 34
Those who violates the provisions of Article 14 or commits an act
listed in Article 16, item (1) and (2) of Article 24 or Article 25 of the
Regulations shall be punished by the civil aviation public security
institute in accordance with the relevant provisions of the "Regulations
of the People's Republic of China on Administrative Penalties for Public
Security."
Article 35
Those who violates the relevant provisions in the Regulations shall be
punished by the civil aviation public security institute in accordance
with the following provisions:
(1) A person who commits an act listed in item 4 of Article 24 may be
punished by warning or imposing a fine of less than 3,000 RMB;
(2) A person who commits an act listed in item 3 of Article 24 may be
punished by warning, confiscating his unlawful earnings or imposing a fine
of less than 5,000 RMB;
(3) A person who violates item 2 of Article 30 and Article 32 but not
serious enough to constitute a crime, may be punished by imposing a fine
of less than 5,000 RMB, and confiscating or withholding the articles
unlawfully carried.
Article 36
Where the provisions of these Regulations are violated in one of the
following circumstances; the competent civil aviation authority may punish
the unit concerned by warning, stopping its business for rectification or
imposing a fine of less than 50,000 RMB; the civil aviation public
security organ may punish the person directly responsible by warning or
imposing a fine of less than 500 RMB:
(1) Cause an aircraft to be out of control in violation of the
provisions of Article 15;
(2) Sell passenger ticket in violation of the provisions of Article
17;
(3) Fail to check the persons to fly in the aircraft and baggage by
the carrier in performing the formalities for transportation in violation
of the provisions of Article 18;
(4) Violate the provisions of Article 19;
(5) Fail to take security measures for the articles accepted for
transportation and to be loaded into the aircraft in violation of the
provisions of Article 20, Article 21, item 1 of Article 30 and Article 31.
Article 37
Those who violates the relevant provisions of the Regulations and
constitutes a crime shall be investigated for criminal responsibility.
Article 38
Those who violates the provisions of the Regulations, in addition to
the punishment prescribed in this Chapter, shall bear the liability to pay
compensation according to law for any loss caused by him to a unit or an
individual.
Chapter VI Appendix
Article 39
In the Regulations the meanings of the following expressions are:
"Airport controlled area" refers to the area defined in an airport
according to the requirement of safety, the entry into and exit from which
are subject to restriction.
"Departure sterile area" refers to the area defined in a terminal
building (lounge) according to the requirement of safety, in which
departing passengers who have gone through security inspection wait to
board the aircraft, as well as boarding passage and ferry vehicle.
"Aircraft movement area" refers to the area in an airport used for the
takeoff and landing and other ground movements concerned of aircraft,
including runway, taxiway, connecting taxiway and passenger apron.
Article 40
The Regulations shall go into effect on the date of promulgation.
